Analytical instruments

Importance Of Analytical Instruments

Analytical instruments  a large class of instruments used to analyze materials and to establish the composition.e.g  spectrophotometers, mass spectrometers, gas chromatographs, potentiometric titrators, ion analyzers, polarographs, coulometer, x-ray spectro-meters, Karl Fischer titrators, atomic absorption spectrometers, fluorimeters and many, many others

Importance analytical instruments are very important because them the world would not have been such as it is now. Many chemical and physical processes are kept count of by using analytical instruments.It was due to the use of these instruments in field of science which opened door way to new world and new prospective. Due to use of instruments such as spectrometer we have gained better under standing of atomic and molecular structure so many vital roles have been played by analytical instruments in the field of science research.

With the help of different chromatographic techniques, the analyst is separated from molecules in a mixture for isolation. These instruments are designed for the benefit of lab technicians, so that they can measure the density of gases in a lab. This practice is carried out to maintain the cleanliness in the premises, so that the patients may not come across any breathing difficulties.
Hospital-to detect blood or alcohol levels in a patient’s blood stream
Law Enforcement – to compare a sample found at  a crime scene to samples from suspects
Environmental Agency – determine the level of  pollutants in the water supply
Manufacturing Plant – to purify a chemical needed to make a product

Industry  In industry analytical instruments are used widely to monitor the chemical and physical processes and to keep quality under control

Agriculture Analytical instruments are important part of research associated with agriculture. These are used to check soil fertility and then the data obtained is further used for the recommendation process to recommend what kind of crop will best suite this kind of soil

DairyAnalytical instruments such are widely used and important part of dairy industry

·        Instruments such as bactocount are used to count bacteria in milk which insures that milk is safe to drink

·         These are used to count number of somatic cells in sample of milk

Pharmaceuticals In medicine making different analytical instruments are used it won’t be wrong to say that medicine industry would not exist without these instruments

·         Quality analysis of medicine to see whether it is up to proportion or not

·         In research and development of new medicines

·         In extraction of desired chemicals from the natural sources

Biotechnology   The use of mass spectrometry in the biotechnology field has increased such that the technique is essential in the development, manufacture, and control of protein therapeutics. The combination of mass spectrometry and chromatography (LC-MS) has proven to be particularly effective. Peptide maps (digested pieces of proteins separated by RP-HPLC) are now monitored by mass spectrometry to determine protein degradations such as oxidation and post-translational modifications like glycosylation (sugar content).

Petroleum industry  The petroleum products used in vehicles are the chemical composition of many compounds. They can make be pure by determining the components both by traditional X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and by total reflection (TXRF) and also by fractional distillations, where it is necessary to verify the presence of micro-traces of pollutants in pure products..

·         It is important to determine the presence of metals during the production of fuels or lubricating oils. This may be made through X-ray fluorescence techniques (XRF) or through optical emission spectrometers (ROTROIL).

·         Few ppm sulphur content in fuels is determinate through X-ray fluorescence (XRF). In chemical and petrochemical plant-engineering field the quality check of materials employed to build the facilities is extremely important. The elementary analysis or PMI of metal materials such as valves, pipes, reactors, is made through optical emission spectrometry (OES) and portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

                  

GPS

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Global Positioning System is a navigational system involving  satellites  and computers

Working: Each GPS satellite transmits data that indicates its location and the current time. All GPS satellites synchronize operations so that these repeating signals are transmitted at the same instant. The signals, moving at the speed of light, arrive at a GPS receiver at slightly different times because some satellites are farther away than others. The distance to the GPS satellites can be determined by estimating the amount of time it takes for their signals to reach the receiver. When the receiver estimates the distance to at least four GPS satellites, it can calculate its position in three dimensions.

APPLICATIONS

saves lives: GPS saves lives by preventing transportation accidents, aiding search and rescue efforts, and speeding the delivery of emergency services and disaster relief.

 critical component of any successful rescue operation is time. Knowing the precise location of landmarks, streets, buildings, emergency service resources, and disaster relief sites reduces that time -- and saves lives. This information is critical to disaster relief teams and public safety personnel in order to protect life and reduce property loss. The Global Positioning System (GPS) serves as a facilitating technology in addressing these needs.

Mapping and Surveying: GPS applications in natural resource management include inventory and mapping of soils, vegetation types, threatened and endangered species, lake and stream boundaries and wildlife habitat. GPS has been used to aid in damage assessment after natural disasters such as fires, floods and earthquakes. GPS has also been used to map archaeological sites and for infrastructure (streets, highways and utilities) mapping, management, and planning for future growth. Engineers use GPS for surveying when building roads, bridges and other structures.

Military use: For marine operations, including search and rescue  GPS provides the fastest and most accurate method for mariners to navigate, measure speed, and determine location. This enables increased levels of safety and efficiency for mariners worldwide.

GPS  remains critical to U.S. national security, and its applications are integrated into virtually every facet of U.S. military operations. Nearly all new military assets -- from vehicles to munitions -- come equipped with GPS.

Alexa rank

ALEXA RANK

Alexa Rank is a relative measurement on how popular a web site among the Internet community. Alexa is relative because it depends on the data of Alexa Toolbar users. And also Alexa Toolbar is only for Internet Explore which means it doesn’t count growing group firefox fans or any other browser users. But there are over 10 million Alexa Toolbar users who make it a recognized measurement

·        The traffic rank is based on three months of aggregated historical traffic data from millions of Alexa Toolbar users and data obtained from other, diverse traffic data sources, and is a combined measure of page views and users (reach). As a first step, Alexa computes the reach and number of page views for all sites on the Web on a daily basis. The main Alexa traffic rank is based on a value derived from these two quantities averaged over time (so that the rank of a site reflects both the number of users who visit that site as well as the number of pages on the site viewed by those users). The three-month change is determined by comparing the site's current rank with its rank from three months ago. 

·        Reach measures the number of users. Reach is typically expressed as the percentage of all Internet users who visit a given site. So, for example, if a site like yahoo.com has a reach of 28%, this means that of all global Internet users measured by Alexa, 28% of them visit yahoo.com. Alexa's one-week and three-month average reach are measures of daily reach, averaged over the specified time period. The three-month change is determined by comparing a site's current reach with its values from three months ago.

·        Page views measure the number of pages viewed by site visitors.  The page views per user numbers are the average numbers of unique pages viewed per user per day by the visitors to the site.

·        The Trend graph shows you the site's daily traffic rank, charted over time. The daily traffic rank reflects the traffic to the site based on data for a single day. In contrast, the main traffic rank shown in the Alexa Toolbar and elsewhere in the service is calculated from three months of aggregate traffic data.

·        The movers and shakers list is based on changes in average reach (numbers of users). For each site on the net.they compute the average weekly reach and compare it with the average reach during previous weeks. The more significant the change, the higher the site will be on the list

·        They then normalize the data on demographic distribution of site visitors. Geographical distribution as such to represent those who do not use Alexa toolbar

Alexa rank

·        Google.com.pk                   138 alexa rank

·        Dawn news                         4017 alexa rank

·        Olx.com.pk                   1627  alexa rank   

·        Ilmkidunya.com.pk      12197 alexa rank

·        Rozee.pk                       4090   alexa rank        

Chemistry

CHEMISTRY II CHM 201
A chemical Engg. course introduced in 3rd semester usually
OBJECTIVES
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering remain critical professions today. Chemistry is essential to the modern society we live in. The chemicals, from which all manner of consumer products are manufactured, are produced in processes developed from the fundamental principles of chemistry. This course provides a key to the process development of consumer products, industrial materials, medicines and foodstuffs. This provides a basic understanding of the most common chemical processes being exploited in chemical industries with a special emphasis on kinetics and thermodynamics of the processes. It is expected to develop among students a sound understanding of physio-chemical principles of chemical industries. The course aims at learning and applying knowledge of organic chemistry for unit processes in organic synthesis. It also introduces students of chemical engineering about the fundamental concepts of biochemistry essential for the relevant biochemical industries.
OUTLINE
Functional groups, Inter conversion of functional groups (FGIs), Reactions mechanism. Unit Process; Thermodynamics, Kinetics, and the mechanism, of sulfonation; nitration; hydrogenation; amination; halogenation, oxidation, polymerization.
Introduction to Bio-chemistry, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, Enzymes and their types, Mode of action of Enzyme, Factors influencing enzyme activity.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS

• organic chemistry - 3rd edition janice smith
• chemistry essentials https://www.dropbox.com/s/matp6afovor9amz/chemistry%202%20essentials.docx

link 1
http://www.4shared.com/office/MlNArIOm/Organic_Chemistry_-_3rd_Editio.html

link2

http://www.4shared.com/office/urTgK6nm/organic_chemistry_-_3rd_editio.html